a litle deep learning....

Micro Radio Wave in SDH

2011-09-17T15:00:00.000-07:00

Althoughin principle the optical fiber has become the medium of choice forlong-haul transmission as well as from the standpoint of its capacity,SDH microwave radio is still required by many network planners. Main reason is related to economic issues, speeds deployment and security.
Economically,the SDH radio provides the most economical solution for networkplanners if the existing infrastructure (eg towers, shelters,power-plant and antenna feeder systems) that already exist can be usedagain when the permission through an area is already owned first. Alsoareas that do not match the terrain (like mountains or buildings acrossthe water / dam) to make deployment of fiber is very expensive. Theconsideration is that for the implementation of a fiber network, thelargest initial capital expenditure for intalasi fiber cables, whichnature does not depend on its capacity.
Theresults of a joint economic study conducted by Northern Telecom(Nortel) and Stentor (an alliance of companies in the Canadiantelephone operator), which aims to determine the design of the mostcost-effective transmission network for installation along the 2000 kmroute, which is based on the required capacity and conditions -fieldconditions, showed that for the difficult environmental conditions, theradio is more cost effective for capacity up to 2.5 Gbps (equivalent to16 x STM-1). For environmental conditions thatare not heavy terrain, fiber networks become more cost effective forlarger capacity than the 310 Mbps (equivalent to 2 x STM-1). Basedon these studies, Stentor can optimize its design along the 6500 kmnetwork of large capacity synchronous Trans Canadian economically withthe spread either through fiber or radio.
It should be noted here is that the comparative study of costs is based on fiber routes and the radio is single. Howeverto meet the objectives of the availability of long-haul nature of theITU-T, a dual route (dual) fiber (which means difersitas route) isrequired, which are generally to compensate for shrinkage / reductionof the cable, which occurs on average two to three times per year per route along the 1000 km. Pleasenote that in designing telecommunication networks there is always aterm of degradation / decrease in work quality cable and a variety ofequipment due to aging, not least in the optical fiber. Each cutting wires can require up to 12 hours to repair. Comparedwith the routes of long-haul radios that can be designed for 99.98percent availability for distances up to 6500 km, which if convertedinto less than two hours of down time per year by using a single route.Therefore, if the study is intended forcomparison of single radio route versus multiple fiber routes, whichprovide the same availability of the network, the radio will have anadvantage in terms of costs even in a larger capacity and theenvironmental conditions mentioned above.
Interms of speed of deployment, SDH radio offers a more rapid deploymentand generate more income faster than the fiber, especially when theexisting infrastructure can be reused.
Consequently, the practical deployment strategy for network planners is to spread the SDH radio network at first. Then,when the revenue / income for the company have been obtained, andcapacity needed to rise, a fiber route and then propagated to obtainthe various routes and network media and to put fiber to the highercapacity that are potential (approximately 10 Gbps) if desirable and possible.
Interms of security, the radio network, which consists of radio Shelteredsite within every 40 to 60 km, is easier to secure than the fibernetwork. Fiber networks is moredifficult to secure because the entire fiber route must be protectedfrom various kinds of natural disturbances and nosy hands.

Reality in SDH Access

2011-09-17T14:57:00.000-07:00

Toprovide lebarpita lower-level sub-2Mbps within the scope of SDH, somemanufacturers provide access to the sound frequency at ADM 4 / 1 themto memultipleks and mendemultipleks E1 stream. Itis not part of the SDH hierarchy and its nature is not different frompemultiplekan and pendemultiplekan an E1 stream provided by the PDHequipment.If desired thepemultiplekan first order to make a 64 kbps channel is always availablefor its users, some ADM 4 / 1 actually has a limited ability tocross-connect 1 / 0 (hierarchical relationship to 0 or 64 kbps to thefirst hierarchy or E1) to distribute and integrate the channel- canal into the streams E1 before pack it into the structure of the VC-12.Manyengineers (engineer) networks assume that the DXC-DXC 1 / 0 is nolonger needed, when the cross connection 1 / 0 can be made in its ADM. ADM-ADMif it is possible to meet the provision of small-scale series of 64kbps, while they do not have the ability to cross connection orarrangement of the DXC 1 / 0, then the reliance solely on the ADM-ADMfor cross connection can cause many problems for operators menyediaan SDH network services sub E-1.Inplanning the migration to SDH in full, the network operators shouldconsider the two roles are taken by the DXC 1 / 0 in deliveringservices efficiently n x64 kbps over mixed network SDH / PDH: namelychanneling and integrating the nx 64 kbps services into the accessnetwork and focus (hubbing) into the core transport network.DXC-ownedhigh capacity 1 / 0 makes it very efficient to distribute and integratethe communication traffic of 64 kbps or nx 64 kbps before heading tothe SDH network. Hubbing with DXC DXC-1/ 0 the transport network negating the need for a complete meshing inlane highway E1 over SDH transport networks to provide services sub-E1.DXC 1 / 0 can be used to break the facility into a level of E1 64 kbps DXC and repackage them for the next transmission. Deploymentstrategy DXC 1 / 0 in this way would also allow a network managementsystem "sub-E1" are spread out in parallel with the overall managementof the SDH system.ADMrelationships in ring (a ring) in the SDH access layer can be viewed asan entity with the interface between E1 with 64 kbps channels with theability to cross connect, but so can the ADM ring is viewed as a DXC 1/ 0?However the key differencebetween ADM rings that have the ability 1 / 0 and a DXC 1 / 0 is trueis in terms of maximum capacity. Interface STM-1(or STM-4, if available) will form a barrier that is bottle neck forthe transport channels of 64 kbps through a hoop or ring. The limit is 1890 or 63 E1 channels. While the ring is unidirectional, this condition can not be made for the second time.What if a flexmux with integrated capabilities 1 / 0 is used in combination with an ADM 4 / 1? Aflexmux memultipleks generally low bit rate and channels soundfrequencies into multiple streams of E1, and may also be associatedwith E1 ports of an ADM 4 / 1. During anumber of exit channels (outgoing) E1 in a flexmux limited to two orthree, they should be filled as completely as possible. Thisincorporation may be formed using cross-connection capabilities of itsflexmux, namely an entrance channel (frequency noise) is placed intothe stream of E1 is given to the ADM 4 / 1.Ability 1 / 0 in the ADM 4 / 1 and flexmuxnya used to integrate the communication traffic towards the high end of its network. However, ring ADM 4 / 1 will act as a DXC 1 / 0 only in the following cases:

    *ADM 4 / 1 has the ability DXC 1 / 0 non-blocking between tributary E1and 63 E1 streams are packaged in STM-1 stream is done via the ADM4/1-nya.
    * A number of E1 in a virtual tributary cross-connect does not exceed 63.
    * Ability 1 / 0 is used to integrate the traffic at the level of access in terms of the network.

Service Implication of SDH

2011-09-16T14:55:00.000-07:00

Tomaximize the advantages of SDH technology that can be achieved, it isnecessary to consider the different layers that exist in atelecommunications network. There aretwo layers of network transport services on a multipurpose network,which provides a service SDH transport stream of bits that aretransparent. This means that thetransport network itself is not aware of the contents of the payload iscarried from A to B (for example, whether a telecommunications line iscarrying voice or data).
Applicationsof new customers and services with added value appears on the networklayer services at a higher level and can take forms that are difficultto predict (such as multimedia applications). Thebottom of the second layer of these services generally include networksof basic services and network-specific overlay network service. -service networks is an area of evolution is more predictable. Networksof basic services include applications, voice, ISDN and mobile radio(mobile), such as GSM, given overlay networks for specific services(for example 64 kbps leased lines provided to customers the company /industry) . Patterns ofgrowth in voice traffic (phone) are generally stable, but the servicesis growing rapidly as GSM in some cases require the development of thetransport network overlay on top throughout and multipurpose tissue. Undernormal conditions, the characteristics that it has become the nature ofan existing network should have to make this overlay, which is more anexception than a necessity.
Whena new service is introduced through a vast geographical area, it iscertainly not necessary to double overlay networks to be designed andimplemented. Proper network planning atthe early stages of a project can guarantee that a network ofmultipurpose transport will initially be able to connect the majorityof potential customers.
Newservices can also be associated with applications of the intelligentnetwork (IN: Intelligent Network), data network or mobile network(mobile). Not like the layers ofservices, the evolution of transport network layer is rather difficultto predict, but generally can be characterized by overall growthconditions are slowly, with a phase which is periodic of rapid growth.

PDH to SDH Evolution Strategy

2011-09-15T14:53:00.000-07:00

Becausethe SDH transmission format is designed to overcome the limitations ofPDH, then all the telecom companies are challenged to introduce intothe SDH transmission network, PDH networks they already get up first. Important issue is the question of balance between the advantages offered by SDH and cost barriers in network investment. This requires a strategy on network evolution from PDH to SDH.
There are three main alternatives, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages. Telecommunications company may need to adopt a mixed strategy as the best answer for each of the environmental conditions.
Three alternatives are:

    * Top-down (the method level or layer)
    Bottom-up (method of islands or branch)
    * Parallel (overlay method)
Coatingmethods particularly relevant to the company's telecommunicationsservices are still introduced at the level of digitalization of itsnetwork trunk or for those who need to support new services in layersover top of the inter-urban networks (as an example for the connectionMAN-MAN )
The main aim is cost savings for large transport capacity in dealing with the growth of communications traffic. Inthe introduction to this strategy begins at the level of SDH backbone /supernode level with a few nodes are connected with systems of STM-16or SDH STM-4. Interconnection to a PDHnetwork is a gateway (gate contact), generally at the cross connectports and the supply port cross-connect ports adequate to support allthe functionality required PDH and SDH. This is an important aspect of network planning.
Thefollowing step is to change the layers of the lower subsequent to theSDH, and move its gateway to the point where the advantages of SDH mostcan be guaranteed. Thus, SDH provides full advantage of the layers of higher and selectively in layers lower.
Strategywith the island method is to install the SDH network nodes at themiddle level and lower level, namely providing SDH islands for aparticular community (for example, centers of trade and financial). With a layer approach, it takes a gateway-gateway for PDH networks.
Atthis level, some of the main cross-connect products will be broadband(wideband), menginterkoneksi systems STM-1 transport through interfacesof 155 Mbps (or 140 Mbps via a gateway interface), with channeling andcombining facilities in VC level 1, 2 and 3 are carried in a speed of 2 Mbps or 1.5 Mbps.
Throughthe parallel method, SDH installed in an overlay network (which isoverlaid) in addition to its PDH network in a few knots. Thegoal is to implement certain new services (such as videoconferencingand LAN interconnection / LAN) as well as benefit from all functions ofSDH as soon as possible, and provide improvements in terms of quality.
Gatewayfor PDH networks are still needed, although there is segregation(separation) between the services between the old and new facilitiesSDH and PDH. It is also important that all the equipment necessary to provide full functionality in SDH SDH is overlaid is already installed.
Thisstrategy is attractive to telecom companies with a traffic growth ofrapid communication, and for those who wish to add functionality SDH(for example, to offer premium services; the caller / caller beingcharged pulses with special rates, which are usually applied toservices information) as they increase their network capacity

SDH Network Architecture

2011-09-14T14:32:00.000-07:00

SDH network architecture in general is as shown in Figure 5. The highest level, SDH transport network is nx STM-1 (nx 155 Mbps), which is crossed by the equipment connected DXC 4 / 4 (Digital Cross Connect). Brief description of the DXC is as follows: in digital telecommunications, digital signals are directed or routed to a central location-the telephone exchange called this DXC. DXC this serves to provide a place for interconnection relations wire line (hardwire) as well as routine maintenance and troubleshooting it. Each type of digital signal has its own digital penyakelar, for example at the DS-1 digital signal at 1.544 Mbps are called DXC-1, DS-4 at 274.176 Mbps called DXC-4. DXC 4 / 4 means a liaison between

fellow at the network hierarchy to pemultiplekan 4.

The main task of the network is to provide a large trunk capacity between the central telephone exchange with the DXC-4 / 4 to allow for rapid restoration of connections if a node crashed or failed to function (impaired).

By using DXC 4 / 4 and the line terminal equipment to nx STM-1 (nx 155 Mbps), the smallest lebarpita handled by the transport network, granularitasnya (one of the canals before pemultiplekan) is an STM-1 (equivalent to 63 channels x 2 Mbps, or 1890 x 64 kbps). Fell further down the network hierarchy, DXC 4 / 1 (liaison with the hierarchy of the hierarchy to 4 to 1) break lebarpita STM-1 to the level of VC-12 (carrying E1). Each VC-12 can be individually routed to the node DXC 4 / 1 other or into the access network.

Through a combination of DXC 4 / 4 and 4 / 1, the granularity of the transport network to be E1 or 2 Mbps (for American T1 = 1.544 Mbps). A DXC 4 / 1 is used to provide granularity of VC-12 (E1) between layers of transport and access layers.

SDH access network are generally arranged in a ring-ring (ring forms) STM-1. ADM 4 / 1 (Add and Drop Multiplexer) for STM-1 mendemultiplek flow into streams E1, or E1 memultiplek flow into the stream STM-1 (hierarchy into the hierarchy to 4 with 1). E1 streams are being provided to end users through a standard interface G.703.

Referring to Figure 5, as mentioned above, the SDH network is divided into two layers (layer); transport layer and access layer. Transport layer consists of equipment located in the central DXC-telephone and high-capacity connections between the central-telephone exchange. Medium access layer consists of ADM equipment located in the central telephone exchange, or cabinets in the street, which is a provider of channel lebarpita for end users.

Source: http://elektroindonesia.com/elektro/telkom11a.html

SDH Hierarchy

2011-09-13T14:17:00.000-07:00

Before the advent of SDH, the hierarchy of digital signal multiplexer to America / Canada, Japan and Europe differ as stated in Table 1. With the SDH hierarchy becomes uniform as shown in Figure 1.

Tabel 1. Hirarki sinyal digital di Amerika, Jepang dan Eropa
Level hirarki ke:	Amerika/kanada (Mbps)	Jepang (Mbps)	Eropa (Mbps)
1 2 3 4 5	1,544 6,312 44,736 274,176 -	1,544 6,312 32,064 97,728 397,200	2,048 2,442 34,368 139,264 560,840

Dari Gambar 1 tersebut terlihat bahwa pada level atau tingkat yang paling tinggi, SDH transport network is a network nx STM-1 (nx 155 Mbps).

STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module) is a synchronous transport module level-1. A single frame of STM-1 is expressed by a matrix consisting of nine rows and 270 columns. These frames are formed of 2430 bytes, each byte consists of 8 bits. STM-1 frame contains two parts, the SOH (Section Overhead) and the VC (Virtual Container) which is its payload. Figure 2 states STM-1 frame structure, Figure 3 states the structure of his VC,sedang Gambar 4 menyatakan alokasi byte pada SOH.
SOH provides information between the two LTE (Line Terminating Equipment) of frame alignment, monitoring the BER (Bit Error Rate) and the transfer of information between the two LTE and so on. While the VC is used for transporting signals its tributary (individual input signals are fed to the multiplexer) through a pathway. Each VC consists of a POH (Path Overhead) and a
Container. POH seperti tercantum dalam Gambar 2 carry information between the points and disasembly asembly as parity checks, labeling channels, alarm monitoring, and performance monitoring. A container carrying tributary signals, is a pointer showing the location of the first bit her on the VC.

Introduction of SDH Technology

2011-09-12T14:17:00.000-07:00

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is a hierarchy pemultiplekan based on synchronous transmission that has been defined by CCITT (ITU-T). In the world of telecommunications, pemultiplekan series of signals in the transmission poses problems in terms of branching and insertion (drop and insert) that is not easy, and limitations to monitor and control the transmission network.
Before the emergence of SDH, the existing transmission standard known as PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy), which has long been defined by CCITT. A network does not synchronize plesiochronous network but using only pulses beat (clock) that is very accurate in all the nodes penyakelarnya (switching nodes) so that the rate of slip between the various nodes are quite small and still be acceptable (eg plus / minus 50 bits or 5x10 -5 to network / channel 2.048 or 1.544 Mbps). This mode of operation such as this may indeed be a most simple implementations because they are avoiding the distribution of timing throughout the network.
It turns out that PDH is not so well suited to support the development of control techniques and signal processing for today are increasingly needed by companies of telecommunications service providers. In PDH, a certain transmission equipment generally only deal with either one specific function within the network, while in a SDH, there is the integration of various types of different equipment that can provide new freedom in designing the network. It's not a new news that the SDH can be used for large capacity optical transmission, traffic regulation and restoration of communications networks.
SDH has two main advantages: flexibility so high in terms of channel configurations on both nodes network and improve network management capabilities for both its payload traffic and network elements. Taken together, these conditions will allow the network to be developed from the passive transport structures in the PDH into other tissues that actively transports and organize information.
Specific offers are created by the SDH of which include:

    * Self-healing; the redirection (rerouting) communication traffic automatically without interruption of service.
    * Service on demand; provision of rapid end-to-end customer services on demand.
    * Access is flexible; flexible management of various lebarpita remains to places customers.
SDH standards also help the creation of an open network structure, much needed in today's competitive scope for companies of telecommunications service providers.

Source: h**p://elektroindonesia.com/elektro/telkom11a.html

belajar membuat web: HTML

2009-07-19T03:30:00.000-07:00

Struktur dasar dari html adalah sebagai berikut

<head>

</head>
<body>

</body>

Bagian head adalah untuk menyimpan kode kode pendukung untuk body missal css
Bagian body digunakan untuk tampilan web misal

<head>

</head>
<body>
hai saya sedang belajar html
</body>

Buka teks editor (notepad++), dan masukan kode diatas
Simpan dengan nama tes.html
Setelah disimpan buka tes.html tersebut dengan Mozilla firefox. Maka akan tampil text hai saya sedang belajar html pada firefox tersebut

sudah mengerti kan dasarnya? Kita mengetik kode pada text editor, kemudian browser akan menerjemahkan kode tadi dan menampilkan sebuah halaman web
berikut ini adalah kode kode yang saya kumpulkan agar anda dapat lebih memahami pelajaran html ini.

source code

karakter karakter yang dapat ditulis dalam bahasa C

2009-07-12T23:53:00.000-07:00

Berikut ini adalah daftar karakter karakter special yang dapat ditulis dalam bahasa c

\b
backspace BS
\f
form feed FF (also clear screen)
\n
new line NL (like pressing return/enter)
\r
carriage return CR (cursor to start of line)
\t
horizontal tab HT
\v
vertical tab (not all versions)
\"
double quotes (not all versions)
\'
single quote character '
\\
backslash character \
\ddd
character ddd where ddd is an ASCII code given in octal or base 8, See Character Conversion Table.
\xddd
character ddd where ddd is an ASCII code given in hexadecimal or base 16, See Character Conversion Table.

Character Conversion Table

2009-07-12T23:44:00.000-07:00

berikut ini adalah tabel Karakter Conversion Table untuk desimal, octal,dan hexadesimal

Decimal  Octal  Hexadecimal  Character

 0       0          0         CTRL-@
 1       1          1         CTRL-A
 2       2          2         CTRL-B
 3       3          3         CTRL-C
 4       4          4         CTRL-D
 5       5          5         CTRL-E
 6       6          6         CTRL-F
 7       7          7         CTRL-G
 8      10          8         CTRL-H
 9      11          9         CTRL-I
10      12          A         CTRL-J
11      13          B         CTRL-K
12      14          C         CTRL-L
13      15          D         CTRL-M
14      16          E         CTRL-N
15      17          F         CTRL-O
16      20         10         CTRL-P
17      21         11         CTRL-Q
18      22         12         CTRL-R
19      23         13         CTRL-S
20      24         14         CTRL-T
21      25         15         CTRL-U
22      26         16         CTRL-V
23      27         17         CTRL-W
24      30         18         CTRL-X
25      31         19         CTRL-Y
26      32         1A         CTRL-Z
27      33         1B         CTRL-[
28      34         1C         CTRL-\
29      35         1D         CTRL-]
30      36         1E         CTRL-^
31      37         1F         CTRL-_
32      40         20
33      41         21         !
34      42         22         "
35      43         23         #
36      44         24         $
37      45         25         %
38      46         26         &
39      47         27         '
40      50         28         (
41      51         29         )
42      52         2A         *
43      53         2B         +
44      54         2C         ,
45      55         2D         -
46      56         2E         .
47      57         2F         /
48      60         30         0
49      61         31         1
50      62         32         2
51      63         33         3
52      64         34         4
53      65         35         5
54      66         36         6
55      67         37         7
56      70         38         8
57      71         39         9
58      72         3A         :
59      73         3B         ;
60      74         3C         <
61      75         3D         =
62      76         3E         >
63      77         3F         ?
64     100         40         @
65     101         41         A
66     102         42         B
67     103         43         C
68     104         44         D
69     105         45         E
70     106         46         F
71     107         47         G
72     110         48         H
73     111         49         I
74     112         4A         J
75     113         4B         K
76     114         4C         L
77     115         4D         M
78     116         4E         N
79     117         4F         O
80     120         50         P
81     121         51         Q
82     122         52         R
83     123         53         S
84     124         54         T
85     125         55         U
86     126         56         V
87     127         57         W
88     130         58         X
89     131         59         Y
90     132         5A         Z
91     133         5B         [
92     134         5C         \
93     135         5D         ]
94     136         5E         ^
95     137         5F         _
96     140         60         `
97     141         61         a
98     142         62         b
99     143         63         c
100     144         64         d
101     145         65         e
102     146         66         f
103     147         67         g
104     150         68         h
105     151         69         i
106     152         6A         j
107     153         6B         k
108     154         6C         l
109     155         6D         m
110     156         6E         n
111     157         6F         o
112     160         70         p
113     161         71         q
114     162         72         r
115     163         73         s
116     164         74         t
117     165         75         u
118     166         76         v
119     167         77         w
120     170         78         x
121     171         79         y
122     172         7A         z
123     173         7B         {
124     174         7C         |
125     175         7D         }
126     176         7E         ~
127     177         7F         DEL

Most common syntax error in c programming

2009-07-12T22:12:00.000-07:00

Error is dividing in 2 parts, syntax error and logic error

Logic error is hard to find, no easy way to detect it

Syntax error is easier since the dev c will give error message if there are syntax error, here is the common errors in c programming

1. Forgot the “;” in the end of statement à the most common beginner mistake

2. Case sensitive, a and A is different in c language, make sure you type it right

3. What header should I include? if you type the statement sin(x) but you don’t include the header math.h there will be an error when you compile the program, but what about the other statement? Here the list of header and the statement in dev c (you can also see this list in the help file dev c with keyword:header)

List of header

get started with C

2009-07-12T19:41:00.000-07:00

Get started with c,
1. Download the bloodshed dev c in www.bloodshed.com and install it
2. Open the dev c and Read the help file carefully, it contains more than enough information and tutorial for c beginner
3. Just write some code and test it, the easiest way to test your code is press ctrl+f9 to compile the file, open the cmd (start --> run --> type “cmd” without colon --> press enter), go to the directory where you compile the file, drag the .exe file to your cmd.
4. Another way to test the file is press f9 after you finish write the code, but I will recommend you to add this code:

getch();

before the last “}”.
Why must we add the code ?, the getch(); code is used for waiting an input. So, the screen will be appear as long as you don’t enter any input
5. Okay, here is some sample code that I type for you, just ask yuki-chan or write in the shoutoutbox/comment box if you have problem or find any bugs :)

hello world

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

main()
{printf("hello world");

getch();//with this the screen will not dissapear immediattely
}

Memasukan input

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

float bilangan1;
int bilangan2;

main()
{
printf("masukan bilangan desimal \n");
scanf("%f",&bilangan1 );
printf("bilangan yang tadi anda masukan adalah %f \n\n", bilangan1);

printf("masukan bilangan bulat \n");
scanf("%i",&bilangan2 );
printf("bilangan yang tadi anda masukan adalah %i \n\n", bilangan2);

getch();//with this the screen will not dissapear immediattely

}

Penjumlahan

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
float bilangan1, bilangan2, hasil;

main()
{
printf("masukan bilangan pertama \n");
scanf("%f",&bilangan1 );
printf("masukan bilangan kedua \n");
scanf("%f",&bilangan2 );

hasil=bilangan1 + bilangan2;
printf("bilangan pertama ditambah bilangan kedua adalah %f", hasil);

getch();////with this the screen will not dissapear immediattely

}

Pengenalan Bahasa C: struktur

2009-06-14T18:30:00.000-07:00

bahasa C merupakan bahasa pemrograman yang cukup populer dan sangat ampuh untuk pemrograman yang berhubungan dengan hardware. Lebih mudah dari assembly tapi gak kalah ampuh juga lo sama assembly. berikut ini merupakan sebuah tutorial bagi anda yang ingin mempelajari bahasa C.

struktur penulisan program:

=========================================================
#include

#define [nama][nilai]

[ global variable]
[function]

void main (void)
{
[deklarasi lokal variable]
[program utama]
}
==============================================================

penjelasan:
1. #include ex: #include
disini kita memasukan file-file header seperti stdio.h, conio.h, delay.h dll
file file header ini dapat diibaratkan sebagai library dari bahasa c . tanpa adanya library mesin tidak akan bisa mengerti apa yang kita tulis. jadi pastikan anda meng-include library-library yang dibutuhkan dalam program anda

2. #define[nama][nilai] ex: #define juta 1.000.000
seperti artinya disini kita mendefinisikan suatu nilai dengan sebuah variable. hal ini dilakukan untuk menyederhanakan program yang kita buat
contoh: x = y * juta lebih baik daripada x= y * 1.000.000

3. global variable ex: char nama
adalah variable yang dapat dgunakan di seluruh fungsi .baik fungsi utama maupun tambahan.

4. function
disini kita bisa menambahkan fungsi tambahan diluar fungsi utama

5.void main (void)
ini adalah tempat program utama. disini kita juga bisa menambahkan variabel local. berbeda dengan variabel global yang berlaku di setiap bagian, variabel local ini hanya bisa berlaku di program utama saja

to be continued..............

mengenal microcontroller 8051 part 3: SFR

2009-06-14T18:25:00.000-07:00

SFR atau spesial function register adalah register-register dengan fungsi sangat khusus. SFR dapat dianalogikan sebagai tabel kontrol yang digunakan untuk menjalankan dan memonitor operasi mikroprocessor. ada sekitar 21 jenis SFR pada mikrokontroller keluarga mcs-51.

Register A(Accumulator)
Register ini berfungsi untuk menyimpan hasil sementara dari operasi. operand harus dimasukan ke accumulator sebelum intruksi aritmatik dilakukan. Ketika ALU (aritmatik logic unit) menjalankan operasi aritmatik, hasilnya akan disimpan di accumulator. jika data dipindahkan dari suatu rgister ke register lain, maka mereka harus melewati accumulator

Register B(Base)
register ini digunakan pada operasi perkalian dan pembagian, dimana operasi ini hanya dapat dijalankan ketika angka angka disimpan dalam register A dan B. untuk intruksi lainnya dapat menngunakan register ini sebagai pengganti register A

Register R(R0-R7)
Register-register ini digunakan untuk penyimpanan variabel dan hasil sementara. register ini disimpan dalam 4 bank RAM

PSW Register (Program Status Word)
Register ini berfungsi untuk memberitahu informasi tentang keadaan CPU.

P - Parity bit. berfungsi untuk mendeteksi genap atau ganjil suatu set dari bit pada accumulator. genap akan bernilai 1, ganjil akan bernilai 0. Misal 26 (11011 in binary), parity flag akan 1 karena jumlah 1 nya genap

- Bit 1. Tbit ini ada pada mikrokontroller selanjutnya.

OV Overflow terjadi ketika hasil dari operasi aritmatik lebih besar dari 255 (decimal), sehingga tidak dapat disimpan dalam satu register. Apa bila terjadi overflow maka bit akan bernilai (1). jika tidak ada maka akan bernilai (0).

RS0, RS1 - Register bank select bits. 2 bit register ini digunakan untuk memilih 1 dari 4 bank register dari ram. dengan memasukan logika 1 dan 0 ke register ini, maka r0 - r7 akan disimpan dalam salah satu bank register tadi.
RS1 RS2 Space in RAM
0 0 Bank0 00h-07h
0 1 Bank1 08h-0Fh
1 0 Bank2 10h-17h
1 1 Bank3 18h-1Fh

F0 - Flag 0. digunakan untuk general purpose

AC - Auxiliary Carry Flag dihunakan untuk operasi BCD

CY - Carry Flag digunakan untuk seluruh operasi aritmatika dan pergeseran.
DPTR Register (Data Pointer)

Register ini sebenarnya tidak ada secara fisik, register dptr ini terdiri dari dua register terpisah, Data Pointer High (DPH) dan Data Pointer Low. 16 bit inilah yang digunakan untuk pengalamatan memory eksternal. walaupun begitu, 16 bit ini dapat dianggap sebagai 2 8 bit register yang independen. mereka juga dapat digunakan sebagai tempat penyimpanan data dan hasil sementara yang tidak ada kaitannya dengan lokasi memori

SP Register (Stack Pointer)

nilai pada stack pointer memastikan bahwa stack pointer akan menunjuk valid RAM, dan memberikan ketersediaan stack. nilai stack pointer akan bertambah 1 setiap memulai subprogram dan berkurang 1 setiap mengakhiri subprogram. setiap kali direset maka stack pointer akan bernilai 7. ini artinya stack akan dimulai dari lokasi ini. apabila nilainya bukan 7, maka seluruh stack akan dipindahkan keposisi lain pada memori.

P0, P1, P2, P3 - Input/Output Registers

Pada register ini apabila pin dibuat 0, maka pin akan berfungsi sebagai ouput, sedangkan apabila diberi nilai 1 maka pin akan berfungsi sebagai output
source:
http://www.keil.com/support/man/docs/is51/
http://howtofriends.com/8051/

mengenal microcontroller 8051 part2: organisasi memory

2009-06-14T18:12:00.001-07:00

Memori pada mikrokontroller dibagi 2, yaitu Program memory(ROM) dan Data memory(RAM). ROM digunakan untuk menyimpan permanen program. RAM digunakan untuk menyimpan sementara hasil dan variable yang terjadi selama mikrokontroller beroperasi. RAM awalnya mempunyai ukuran memory sebesar 256 lokasi (0-FFh), sementara pada versi selanjutnya terdapat 128 register tambahan.

RAM terdiri dari beberapa blok. Blok pertama (0-20h) terdiri dari 4 bank, masing-masing memiliki 8 register dari r0-r7. blok berikutnya (20h-2fh) merupakan bit-addresable memory, artinya masing masing bit mempunyai alamat sendiri dari 0-7f. karena ada 16 register maka terdapat 128 bit dengan alamat terpisah. blok ketiga(2fh-7fh) adalah register register. untuk lebih jelas bisa dilihat melalui gambar berikut....

2009-06-14T18:04:00.000-07:00

ASCII (American standard code for information interchange)

Adalah kode biner standar untuk mengkodekan karakter alphanumeric. Kode ASCII menggunakan 7 bit untuk mengkodekan 128 karakter. 3 bit MSB adalah kolom, 4 bit LSB adalah baris.

Kode ASCII terdiri dari 96(32 – 127) printable character dan 32(0-31) non printing character yang terdiri dari Format effectors, information separators, communication controls

Dalam praktiknya data computer beroperasi pada satuan byte(8 bit) sehingga bit ke 8 sering kali di gunakan untuk kegunaan tertentu tergantung dari aplikasinya. Misal: penambahan simbol pada beberapa printer. kode tambahan inilah yang disebut extended ASCII codes.

Mengenal microcontroller 8051 part 1: arsitektur 8051

2009-06-14T17:49:00.000-07:00

8051 adalah salah satu mikrokontroller yang berasal dari keluaga mcs 51. mikrokontroller ini sangat populer pada masanya, bahkan masih sering digunakan sampai saat ini. pada part 1 ini saya akan membahas arsitektur dari mikrokontroller 8051 ini. o iya untuk no pin nya dari p1.0-gnd adalah 1-20, dari p2.0-vcc adalah 21-40

keterangan:
Pins 1-8: Port 1 setiap pin dapat dikonfigurasi sebagai input/output

Pin 9: RS apa bila diisi dengan logic 1, pin ini akan men-stop operasi dan menghapus isi hampir semua register,. apabila diisi dengan logic 0, maka pin akan memulai program dari awal.

Pins10-17: Port 3 mirip dengan port 1, setiap pin dapat dikonfigurasi sebagai input/output. selain tu mereka juga memiliki fungsi lain:

Pin 10: RXD Serial asynchronous/syncronous communication input

Pin 11: TXD Serial asynchronous communication output atau Serial synchronous communication clock output.

Pin 12: INT0 Interrupt 0 input

Pin 13: INT1 Interrupt 1 input

Pin 14: T0 Counter 0 clock input

Pin 15: T1 Counter 1 clock input

Pin 16: WR Signal untuk menulis RAM tambahan (eksternal)

Pin 17: RD Signal untuk membaca dari RAM eksternal

Pin 18, 19: X2, X1 input dan output internal oscillator. quartz crystal yang megatur frekuensi operasi mikrokontroller biasanya dihubungkan ke pin-pin ini.

Pin 20: GND Ground

Pin 21-28: Port 2 jika tidak menggunakan eksternal memory, maka pin2 ini berfungsi sebagai universal input-output. jika memory eksternal digunakan maka akan muncul pada port ini alamat byte yang lebih tinggi (contoh: a8-a15)these port pins are configured as universal inputs/outputs. In case external memory is used then the higher address byte, i.e. addresses A8-A15 will appear on this port. It is important to know that even memory with capacity of 64Kb is not used ( i.e. note all bits on port are used for memory addressing) the rest of bits are not available as inputs or outputs.

Pin 29: PSEN jika external ROM digunakan untuk menyimpan program, maka pin ini mempunyai logic 0 setiap kali mikrokontroller membaca sebuah byte dari memory.

Pin 30: ALE ALE (address latch enable), digunakan ketika multiple memory eksternal dihubungkan ke mikrokontroller dan hanya satu yang dibutuhkan.

Pin 31: EA dengan memasukan logic 0 pada pin ini, p2 dan p3 digunakan untuk transmisi data dan alamat dengan tidak mengangggap adanya memory internal atau tidak. jika digunakan logic 1 maka mikrokontroller akan menggunakan 2 memory, internal dan eksternal.

Pin 32-39: Port 0 mirip dangan port 2, jika tidak menggunakan eksternal memory, maka pin2 ini berfungsi sebagai universal input-output. jika ada, maka P0 akan digunakan sebagai alamat output (A0-A7). Ketika ALE bernilai , dan data output ketika ALE bernilai 01

Pin 40: VCC Power supply +5V

Port Input/Output
Mikrokontroller 8051 mempunyai 4 I/O port , setiap port memiliki 8 pin. berarti sebuah mikrokontroller 8051 32 pin input output. logic state dari pin menyatakan apakah sebuah pinberfungsi sebagai input atau output: 0=output, 1=input.

Transformator

2009-05-14T18:28:00.000-07:00

transformator adalah suatu alat elektronik yang memindahkan energi dari satu sirkuit elektronik ke sirkuit lainnya melalui pasangan magnet Biasanya dipakai untuk mengubahtegangan listrik dari tinggi ke rendah dan berarti juga mengubah arus listrik dari rendah ke tinggi.

Transformator bekerja berdasarkan prinsip induksi, dimana

Daya dibagi tiga, daya nyata (P) watt, daya reactive (Q)VaR, daya apparent (S)VA
PS = Cos

θ

P = VI cos

θ

Q = VI sin

θ

S = VI
voltage regulation (VR) adalah kemampuan dari sistem untuk menyediakan tegangan konstan (hampir) ke segala kondisi beban.

V_nl = voltage at no load

V_fl = voltage at full load = a.Vsekunder

a = perbandingan lilitan primer dan sekunder

Semakin kecil nilai VR semakin bagus